Solid-state image sensors are used in, for example, video cameras, and are presently realized in a number of forms including charge coupled devices (CCDs) and CMOS image sensors. These image sensors are based on a two dimensional array of pixels. Each pixel includes a sensing element that is capable of converting a portion of an optical image into an electronic signal. These electronic signals are then used to regenerate the optical image on, for example, a liquid crystal display (LCD).
CMOS image sensors first appeared in 1967. However, CCDs have prevailed since their invention in 1970. Both solid-state imaging sensors depend on the photovoltaic response that results when silicon is exposed to light. Photons in the visible and near-IR regions of the spectrum have sufficient energy to break covalent bonds in silicon. The number of electrons released is proportional to the light intensity. Even though both technologies use the same physical properties, all-analog CCDs dominated vision applications because of their superior dynamic range, low fixed-pattern noise (FPN), and high sensitivity to light.
More recently, however, CMOS image sensors have gained in popularity. Pure CMOS image sensors have benefited from advances in CMOS technology for microprocessors and ASICs and provide several advantages over CCD imagers. Shrinking lithography, coupled with advanced signal-processing algorithms, sets the stage for sensor array, array control, and image processing on one chip produced using these well-established CMOS techniques. Shrinking lithography should also decrease image-array cost due to smaller pixels. However, pixels cannot shrink too much, or they have an insufficient light-sensitive area. Nonetheless, shrinking lithography provides reduced metal-line widths that connect transistors and buses in the array.
CMOS pixel arrays are at the heart of the newly developed CMOS image sensors. CMOS pixel-array construction uses active or passive pixels. Active-pixel sensors (APSs) include amplification circuitry in each pixel. Passive pixels use photodiodes to collect the photocharge, whereas active pixels can include either photodiode or photogate light sensitive regions. The first image-sensor devices used in the 1960s were passive pixel arrays, but read noise for passive pixels has been found to be high, and it is difficult to increase the passive pixel array's size without exacerbating the noise. CMOS active-pixel sensors (APSs) overcome passive-pixel deficiencies by including active circuits (transistors) in each pixel.
FIG. 1 shows a CMOS APS image sensor circuit 100 that includes a pixel array 110 and control circuitry 120.
Pixel array 110 includes a closely spaced matrix of APS cells (pixels) 140 and 142 that are arranged in rows and columns, with “black pixel” (masked) APS cells 142 located at the end of each row of pixels 140. Pixel array 110 is depicted as a ten-by-ten array for illustrative purposes only. Pixel arrays typically consist of a much larger number of pixels (e.g., 804-by-1016 arrays), and may include more than one column of black pixel APS cells 142. Moreover, the pixels may be arranged in patterns other than rows and columns. Each APS cell 140 and 142 of pixel array 110 includes a light-sensing element that is capable of converting a detected quantity of light into a corresponding electrical signal at an output terminal 150. However, as discussed below, APS cells 142 are provided with a blocking layer (mask) that prevents light from reaching its light-sensing element. The pixels in each row are connected to a common reset control line 123 and a common row select control line 127. The pixels in each column are connected through respective output terminals 150 to an associated common column data line 130.
Control circuitry 120 includes a row decoder 123 and sense amplifiers/registers 127. A timing controller (not shown) provides timing signals to row decoder 120 that sequentially activates each row of APS cells 140/142 via reset control lines 124 and row select control lines 125 to detect light intensity and to generate corresponding output voltage signals during each frame interval. The timing of the imaging system is controlled to achieve a desired frame rate, such as 30 frames per second in video applications. The detailed circuitry of the row decoder 123, sense amplifiers/registers 127 and timing controller is well known to one ordinarily skilled in the art.
During operation, APS cells 140 are utilized to detect an image, while black pixel APS cells 142 are utilized to adjust for dark currents generated in pixel array 110. When detecting a particular frame, each row of APS cells 140 may be activated to detect light intensity over a substantial portion of the frame interval. In the time remaining after the row of APS cells 140 has detected the light intensity for the frame, each of the respective pixels simultaneously generates output voltage signals corresponding to the amount of light detected by that APS cell 140. If an image is focused on the array 110 by, for example, a conventional camera lens, then each APS cell 140 generates an output voltage signal corresponding to the light intensity for a portion of the image focused on that APS cell 140. The output voltage signals generated by the activated row are simultaneously provided to column output lines 130 via output terminals 150. Column output lines 130 transmit these output voltage signals to sense amplifiers/registers 127.
FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B) are simplified schematic and cross-sectional views showing a conventional APS (image sensor) cell 140(1). APS cell 140(1) includes a photodiode 210, a reset transistor 220, an amplifier formed by a source-follower transistor 230, and a select transistor 240. Reset transistor 220 includes a gate connected to reset control line 124 (1), a first terminal connected to a voltage source VDD (e.g., 5 volts) that is transmitted on a voltage source line 223, and a second terminal connected to a terminal of photodiode 210 and to the gate of source-follower transistor 230 via metal line 224. Reset transistor 220 controls integration time and, therefore, provides for electronic shutter control. Source-follower transistor 230 has a first terminal connected to voltage source line 223, a second terminal connected to a first terminal of select transistor 240. Source-follower transistor 230 buffers the charge transferred to column output lines 130 from photodiode 210, and provides current to charge and discharge capacitance on column output lines 130 more quickly. The faster charging and discharging allow the length of column output lines 130 to increase. This increased length, in turn, allows an increase in array size. Select transistor 240 has a gate connected to row select control line 125(1) and a second terminal connected to column data line 130(1) via output terminal 150(1). Select transistor 240 gives half the coordinate-readout capability to the array. Although reset transistor 220, source-follower transistor 230 and select transistor 240 would appear to increase the power consumption of APS cell 140(1) over passive pixel cells, little difference exists between an active and a passive pixels power consumption.
FIG. 2(B) shows a simplified cross-section of conventional APS cell 140(1). APS cell 140(1) is formed in a P-type substrate 250 using known CMOS techniques. Photodiode 210 is formed in a first n-type diffusion (light sensitive) region 215. Voltage source VDD is applied via voltage source line 223 to a second n-type diffusion region 225 that is spaced from photodiode region 215. A first polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) gate structure 227 is provided over the space between diffusion region 225 and photodiode region 215 and connected to reset control line 124(1) to collectively form reset transistor 220. A third n-type diffusion region 235 is spaced from second region 225, and a second polysilicon gate structure 237 is formed over this space. Photodiode 210 is connected to second polysilicon gate 237 by metal line 224 to form source-follower transistor 230. A fourth n-type diffusion region 245 is spaced from third region 235, and a third polysilicon gate structure 247 is formed over this space and connected to row select control line 125(1) to form select transistor 240. Fourth diffusion region 245 is connected to output terminal 150(1), which in turn is connected to column data line 130(1). APS cell 140(1) is depicted as an n-channel device with electrons as the photo-generated charge carriers. In alternative embodiments (not shown), APS cells may be formed as a p-channel device with holes as the photo-generated charge carriers.
APS cell 140(1) operates in an integration and readout phase that is controlled by signals received on reset control line 124(1) and row select control line 125 (1). Reset transistor 220 is pulsed on and off during the integration phase. This reset process causes the potential of photodiode region 215 to float at a reset level approximately equal to VDD less the threshold voltage of reset transistor 220. Photodiode 210 inherently includes capacitance to store an amount of charge proportional to the light intensity reflected from an object. The photogenerated current discharges the pixel capacitance and causes the potential of the photodiode 210 to decrease from its value of approximately VDD to another value, the signal value, which is dictated by the amount of photogenerated current. The difference between the reset and signal levels is proportional to the incident light and constitutes the video signal. Photodiode 210 is buffered from the output terminal 50 by source-follower transistor 230. Select transistor 240 is used to select the pixel for read-out.
One of the major problems associated with CMOS image sensors is the relatively large dark current intrinsic to the CMOS process. A significant cause of the large dark current is the reverse-bias diode leakage in the photodiode of each a pixel, as well as in the source diffusion of the MOS field effect transistor (MOSFET) connected to the photodiode. The diode leakage is often dominated by the edge leakage currents. Furthermore, in deep-submicron generations of CMOS technology, this leakage current will only increase and take major engineering efforts to suppress. Dark current is also temperature dependent, and therefore tends to drift with changes in the ambient temperature of, for example, a camera containing the CMOS image sensor array.
One approach to dealing with dark current, known as the “black reference” technique, measures the dark currents generated in “black pixels” (APS cells) 142, and uses these measurements to adjust the signal generated by non-masked APS cells 140. As mentioned above, black pixels 142 are standard pixels (e.g., standard APS cells) that are coated or otherwise masked by a black photosensitive resist layer.
Black photosensitive resists are either pigment-based or carbon-based. Carbon-based photosensitive resists have superior light blocking performance in comparison to pigment-based photosensitive resists, which is measured in terms of optical density (OD). For example, a typical carbon-based photosensitive resists has an OD of about 3.0 for a thickness of 1.0 microns, whereas a typical carbon-based photosensitive resist having the same thickness has an OD of about 1.0.
A problem associated with both carbon-based photosensitive resists and pigment-based photosensitive resists is that they are hard to process. For example, carbon-based photosensitive resists are not transparent to I-line (365 nm) or G-line (436 nm) wavelengths, and the carbon particles tend to adhere to the underlying substrate. In some cases, carbon-based photosensitive resists have no process window at all, resulting in cases where both resist lifting and scum problems can occur at the same time. Therefore, conventional methods for processing carbon-based photosensitive resists typically involves setting a process window determined by the exposure dose needed to adhere the resist layer, combined with aggressive developing steps using high-pressure spray and/or increasing the developer temperature to remove unwanted resist areas from the pixel array. These solutions are typically considered too expensive to perform, thereby rendering carbon-based photosensitive resists essentially obsolete in modern CMOS fabrication processing techniques. Similar problems exist in the use of pigment-based photosensitive resists.
What is needed is a cost effective method for fabricating CMOS image sensors that utilizes the beneficial characteristics of carbon-based photosensitive resists (or pigment-based photosensitive resists) that avoids the problems described above.